Other Names : pickleweed, glasswort, sea beans, sea asparagus, crow’s foot greens, samphire, marsh samphire, "titines de souris"
(mouse tits).
Salicornia is a halophyte, belonging to Amaranthaceae family (Singh et al. 2014). In fact, Salicornia name has originated from the Latin word meaning ‘salt’. Studies report that some species, for example Salicornia europaea show tolerance towards salinity as high as 3 % NaCl (Yamamoto et al. 2009). This fleshy plant is found at the edges of wetlands, marshes, sea shores, and mudflats, actually on most alkaline flats (Smillie 2015). It has a geographical distribution spanning 4 continents such as North America, Asia, Africa and Europe.
Salicornia in spring and summer is green and fit for consumption, b
Salicornia in autumn is
red and
purple, with high salt concentration, is not suitable for food purpose</p></div></div></div>
Table 1
Most studied species of Salicornia and their geographical distributions
<thead>| No. | Botanical name | Common names | Geographical Range | References |
|---|
</thead><tbody>| 1 |
Salicornia europaea
| Common glasswort | Britain, France, Ireland | Zhang et al. (<a href="#CR86" rid="CR86" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674017">2014</a>) |
| 2 |
Salicornia bigelovii
| Dwarf glasswort | USA, Mexico | Zhang et al. (<a href="#CR87" rid="CR87" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674019">2015</a>) |
| 3 |
Salicornia brachiata
| Umari keerai | India | Jha et al. (<a href="#CR29" rid="CR29" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673982">2012</a>) |
| 4 |
Salicornia virginica
| American glasswort, pickleweed | Canada, USA, Mexico | Rosso et al. (<a href="#CR65" rid="CR65" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674027">2005</a>) |
| 5 |
Salicornia maritima
| Slender glasswort | Canada, USA, Mexico | – |
| 6 |
Salicornia ramosissima
| Purple glasswort | France, Iberia | Isca et al. (<a href="#CR25" rid="CR25" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674048">2014</a>) |
| 7 |
Salicornia herbacea
| – | Korea | Cho et al. (<a href="#CR7" rid="CR7" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674033">2015</a>) |
| 8 |
Salicornia persica
| – | Iran | Singh et al. (<a href="#CR73" rid="CR73" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673986">2014</a>) |
</tbody>
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Health Benefits and Uses of Salicornia
- Skin rejuvenating : An Salicornia herbacea (SH) treatment to B16 melanoma cells decreased the synthesis of melanin and inhibited tyrosinase activity. These results collectively indicate that SH had antioxidative and whitening effects on skin and would be a good candidate for skin rejuvenating agent.
- Antioxidant : Aqueous and methanol extracts of the enzyme-treated S. herbacea possessed potential antioxidant effects as observed in vitro on rat liver microsomal lipid peroxidation (Jang et al. 2007). The butanol fraction S. herbacea methanol extract exerted scavenging activities attributable to its active principle isorhamnetin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside. The glucopyranoside intervened with inflammatory pathways via manipulation of cytokine profile (Kim et al. 2009). In a rat model, S. herbacea vinegar when orally administered (at 7 g/kg water) showed free radical scavenging and SOD-like activities. Furthermore, the vinegar-administered rats showed higher glycogen accumulation in liver and muscles, higher lactate and ATP metabolism, promoting enzyme activities such as muscle creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase, whereas serum fatigue biomarkers such as ammonia, lactate and inorganic acid were markedly decreased (Cho et al. 2015).
- Antiproliferative : Polysaccharides from botanical sources exerting anticancer properties have been well-documented (Chang 2002; Patel and Goyal 2012). In this regard, many Salicornia polysaccharides have also shown promise, validated through in vitro and in vivo models. Crude as well as purified polysaccharides from S. herbacea (at 0.5–4 mg/ml) demonstrated anti-proliferation of human colon cancer HT-29 cells when incubated for 24–48 h (Ryu et al. 2009). The mechanism of the cancer cell death was attributed to cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase, followed by apoptosis. Expression of the p53 tumor suppressor gene and the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 (CDK inhibitor p21) were observed (Ryu et al. 2009). In another study S. herbacea -derived chlorogenic acid, 3-caffeoyl, 4-dicaffeoylquinic acid exerted control on metastasis of human fibrosarcoma HT-1080 cell line (Hwang et al. 2010). The invasion restraint was mediated through the inhibition of activator protein-1 AP-1 and signaling pathways involving protein kinase C (PKC) delta (repressing phosphorylation of ERK, p38 MAPK, and JNK) and three MAPKs, culminating in reduced activation of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 (Hwang et al. 2010). Another study found that pentadecyl ferulate from S. herbacea ethyl acetate extract possesses antioxidant effect and exerts anticancer response towards human hepatocellular liver carcinoma HepG2 and human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial A549 cells, along with phytol and γ-linolenic acid (Wang et al. 2013). Saponins, Salbige A and B, isolated from S. herbacea exerted antiproliferative activities towards A549 cells, while a pheophorbide (a chlorophyll catabolite) inhibited both A549 and HepG2 cancer cells (Zhao et al. 2014).
- Lipid lowering : Hyperlipidemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality across the globe. S. herbacea ethanol (50 %) extract exerted lipid lowering in mice model when prescribed for 10 weeks, via suppression of lipogenesis related genes [sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1a), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GAPT)] (Park et al. 2006). In addition, flavonoids from this plant were observed to exert adipogenic inhibition in 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Kong and Seo 2012). The isorhamnetin compound reduced adipogenic differentiation by down-regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ), CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBPα), SREBP1, and the adipocyte-specific proteins. Involvement of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was also observed (Kong and Seo 2012). In addition, 3-caffeoyl, 4-dihydrocaffeoylquinic acid extracted from this species prevented lipid accumulation by blocking SREBP-1c and FAS through LKB1/SIRT1 and AMPK activation as studied in HepG2 cells (Pil Hwang et al. 2013). Another mice study on this plant revealed that it can decrease body weight gain by controlling serum leptin and manipulating lipid synthesis genes as SREBP-1c, PPARγ and FAS. Intake of high fat diet along with the plant powder at 50 g/ kg dose conferred significantly better parameters compared to only high fat diet or high fat diet plus NaCl group (Pichiah and Cha 2015).
- Antibacterial : Methanol extract of S. herbacea showed antibacterial activities, mediated by interference with cytochrome P450 CYP1A2, CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 enzymes (Essaidi et al. 2013). Another study explored the possibility of developing antimicrobial nanoparticles from Salicornia. S. brachiata-based gold nanoparticles were analyzed through a set of standard tools, which revealed its poly-dispersed, crystalline nature and 22–35 nm size (Essaidi et al. 2013). The particles decimated tested bacteria, manifested in zone of clearance on inoculated plates. Further, the nanoparticles showed synergistic activity with fluoroquinolone antibiotic ofloxacin (Ayaz Ahmed et al. 2014). Based on these exciting results, follow-up studies ought to be pursued.
- Antidiabetic : Diabetes has assumed epidemic proportions in current times, due to pollution, and processed, calorie-rich food consumption, among other causal factors (Olokoba et al. 2012). Existing panel of antidiabetic drugs provoke side effects (Haque et al. 2011; Stein et al. 2013). In this regard, safer options to control hyperglycemia are being searched. Consequently, the ameliorative effect of S. herbacea powder on induced-diabetic rats was studied. When administered alone or recommended with exercise (in the form of swimming), it showed higher expression of liver and muscle glucose transporters GLUT-4 and GLUT-2 (Lee et al. 2015). Higher glycogen concentration in liver and muscle also corroborated the finding, heralding possible usage of the halophyte as an antidote to control diabetes (Lee et al. 2015).
- Hepatoprotective : Liver is a vital gland for proper functionality of the body (Jarrar et al. 2001). Most analgesics induce adverse effect on liver tissues and functions (Bessone 2010). To evaluate hepatoprotective effects of a Korean herbal drink, of which Salicornia was a constituent, this study was conducted. The multi-herb potion ‘taemyeongcheong’ was administered to acetaminophen-stressed mice. At 500 mg/kg dose, the drink conferred protective effects on mice liver. Drop in the level of oxidative enzymes as alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and elevation in the level of antioxidative enzymes as catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione was observed. Decline in expression of hepatic mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, COX-2, and iNOS genes were observed, which can be linked to the lower degree of lesions to liver tissue (Yi et al. 2015).
- Immunomodulatory : Polysaccharides from this plant have shown evidence of eliciting immune response. In this context, some pertinent studies have been discussed below. In an in vitro study, S. herbacea polysaccharides induced nitric oxide (NO) production from mouse peritoneal macrophages and mouse leukaemic monocyte macrophage RAW 264.7, through the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB/Rel (NF-kappaB/Rel) (Lee et al. 2006). Consequently, the polysaccharide stimulating macrophages that express iNOS gene came forth (Lee et al. 2006). In another study on S. herbacea, its polysaccharide demonstrated effect on monocyte activation and differentiation into macrophage (Im et al. 2006). RAW 264.7 cells elaborated cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin (IL)-1 beta, and nitric oxide (NO) when incubated with the polysaccharide. Further differentiation into macrophage was determined from higher adherence development in the monocytes (Im et al. 2006). Enhanced collagen-adherence is known to improve phagocytosis (Newman and Tucci 1990). Further work by same group of researchers reaffirmed that the purified polysaccharide worked in sync with IFN-γ to induce immune effector molecules as TNF-α, IL-1 β, and NO to differentiate the monocytes into the macrophages (Im et al. 2007).
- Osteoprotective : Bone health is crucial for they make the framework of body and enable proper muscle movement. Nutrient deficiency, genetic or geriatric conditions impose bone malfunctions. Osteoporosis is a key bone disorder, for which one causal agent has been identified as higher bone adipogenesis (differentiation of stem cells into mature adipocytes) (Pino et al. 2012). In this regard, S. herbacea extract was observed to inhibit adipogenesis via manipulation of PPARγ, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP)α and SREBP1c. Resultantly, osteogenesis improved, as evidenced in MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts. Osteoblastogenesis markers as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2, osteocalcin and collagen type I (collagen-I) lent support to bone formation induction by S. herbacea extract (Karadeniz et al. 2014).
- Antiseptic food additive : Sepsis, caused by the compromised integrity of membrane barrier can be fatal (Li et al. 2009), so the discovery of the antiseptic effect of Salicornia is interesting, regarding which some relevant findings have been discussed here. High mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1), a nuclear protein elaborated by activated leucocytes, is released in excess when inflammatory tissue damage renders the membrane porous (Tang et al. 2010; Lotze and Tracey 2005; Passali et al. 2012). In this scenario, inhibitors of HMGB1 are suggested to be a potential treatment for sepsis. S. herbacea-derived caffeoylated quinic acids showed anti-HMGB1 activity which exerted protection towards vasculature (Tuan et al. 2015a). The purified flavanones and chromone derivatives from the plant suppressed the release of HMGB1 in mice models, barricading the animal intestine from septic shocks (Tuan et al. 2015b). Role of the phytochemicals in hyperpermeability modulation needs to be investigated further, to better utilize the halophyte in fight against septicemia. While the precise mechanism is yet to be discovered for Salicornia, other studies have attributed anti- HMGB1 activity to be due to activated cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (Goldstein et al. 2007).
References
