Difference between revisions of "Salicornia"

Food uses

For its saltiness and crunchiness, it is used as a green salad. Even in some cultures, it is considered a delicacy. Only the green, tender parts are recommended for edibility, the reddish being too high in salinity and silica. In some communities, the shoots are processed into beverages like nuruk (a type of fermentation starter), makgeolli (a Korean rice wine), or vinegar (Song et al. <a href="#CR75" rid="CR75" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674029">2013</a>; Kim et al. <a href="#CR36" rid="CR36" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673990">2013</a>). A study found that Salicornia not only stimulates the fermenting microbe propagation but also improves the quality of vinegar (Seo et al. <a href="#CR68" rid="CR68" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674002">2010</a>). Apart from direct consumption, these plants have been found fitting as a source of dietary salt. S. herbacea powder was transformed into spherical granules, which showed potential to be used like NaCl (Shin and Lee <a href="#CR71" rid="CR71" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674035">2013</a>). A study found that 1.5 % of Salicornia salt as a partial substitute for NaCl can be added to frankfurters for texture improvement without any perceivable side effects (Kim et al. <a href="#CR37" rid="CR37" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674023">2014</a>). The positive effect of the fortification was manifested in increased cooking yield and emulsion stability (Kim et al. <a href="#CR37" rid="CR37" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673961">2014</a>). In another interesting study, Salicornia bigelovii salt was discovered to prevent hypertensive effect, normally associated with NaCl. Ameliorative effect on kidney and liver was established which correlated to lower serum creatinine level (Zhang et al. <a href="#CR87" rid="CR87" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673967">2015</a>). Further, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase activity increased while malondialdehyde (MDA) content decreased, suggesting beneficial effect on antioxidant profile of the body (Zhang et al. <a href="#CR87" rid="CR87" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673987">2015</a>). The overall food value of Salicornia has got a boost from the phytochemical profiling studies that have unveiled an array of nutritive components, as discussed below.

Phytochemicals

Salicornia plants have been screened for phytochemical profile and presence of a range of carbohydrates, proteins, oils, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, sterols, saponins, alkaloids, and tannins have been reported. Water and alcohol extraction followed by component profiling has indexed many potentially bioactive compounds. Studies have reported the presence of dietary fibers, bioactive polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, sterols, flavonoids, and minerals (Mg, Ca, Fe, K) in S. herbacea (Essaidi et al. <a href="#CR14" rid="CR14" class=" bibr popnode">2013</a>).

An immunomodulatory polysaccharide was isolated from S. herbacea (Lee et al. <a href="#CR40" rid="CR40" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674015">2006</a>; Im et al. <a href="#CR23" rid="CR23" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674045">2006</a>). Monosaccharide composition analysis of Salicornia brachiata fraction revealed the dominance of rhamnose, arabinose, mannose, galactose, and glucose, with meager presence of ribose and xylose (Sanandiya and Siddhanta <a href="#CR67" rid="CR67" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673964">2014</a>). Proteomic analysis (matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry) revealed high protein contents of the seeds. Based on the detection of high disulfide linkages in the globulin proteins, it was deemed suitable for consumption, as sulfur-rich proteins are generally fit for nutrition (Jha et al. <a href="#CR29" rid="CR29" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674037">2012</a>). Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was used to profile lipidome of S. ramosissima which showed esterified and free fatty acids, fatty alcohol, sterols, alkanes and aromatic acid derivatives. Among the dominant components, palmitic acid, tetracosanol and octacosanol were significant (Isca et al. <a href="#CR25" rid="CR25" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674046">2014</a>). Tetracosanol, the aliphatic alcohol has been identified to possess α-amylase ability, which makes it relevant in diabetes therapy (Jhong et al. <a href="#CR30" rid="CR30" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674003">2009</a>). Octacosanol, the high-molecular-weight aliphatic alcohol has been known to be a component of cholesterol-lowering drugs such as policosanol (Liu et al. <a href="#CR45" rid="CR45" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674012">2015</a>). By metabolomic analysis, S. brachiata was detected to be rich in sulfur amino acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs 55–64 %) (Mishra et al. <a href="#CR48" rid="CR48" class=" bibr popnode">2015</a>). Presence of selenium in S. brachiata was detected (Mishra et al. <a href="#CR48" rid="CR48" class=" bibr popnode">2015</a>). Selenium is an essential micronutrient for growth and robust antioxidant effects, deficiency of which has been documented to impair the immune system (Finley <a href="#CR17" rid="CR17" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674031">2005</a>). In this regard, it appears justified to evaluate dietary extraction of selenium from Salicornia. A study found S. herbacea seed oil to be stable to oxidation and eligible to be used in food processing (Choi et al. <a href="#CR8" rid="CR8" class=" bibr popnode">2014</a>). The oil composed of linoleic acid, oleic acid, arachidic acid, palmitic acid, tocopherol (α, γ, δ type), phenol, chlorophyll, and β carotene, was free of rancidity during a 60 day dark storage period (Choi et al. <a href="#CR8" rid="CR8" class=" bibr popnode">2014</a>). Stigmastanol, 24-ethyl-δ(22)-coprostenol and several other bioactive fatty alcohols were detected (Isca et al. <a href="#CR25" rid="CR25" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674010">2014</a>). In another study, a chlorogenic acid, 3-caffeoyl-4-dicaffeoylquinic acid was detected in S. herbacea extract (Hwang et al. <a href="#CR22" rid="CR22" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674028">2010</a>). Another study identified pentadecyl ferulate, stigmasterol, ergosterol, vanillic aldehyde and scopoletin in S. herbacea (Wang et al. <a href="#CR81" rid="CR81" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674013">2013</a>). Chromatography could detect β sitosterol (1), stigmasterol (2), uracil (3), and isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside in S. herbacea (Lee et al. <a href="#CR39" rid="CR39" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673992">2004</a>). Saponins were identified in butanol fraction of S. herbacea extract, some of which exerted antioxidant effect (Kim et al. <a href="#CR35" rid="CR35" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673985">2012</a>). Two new noroleanane-type triterpene saponins, Salbige A and B were isolated from the aerial parts of S. herbacea (Zhao et al. <a href="#CR88" rid="CR88" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674000">2014</a>). A new nortriterpene saponin, bigelovii D with antifungal potential was isolated from the hydroalcoholic extract of S. bigelovii (Shan et al. <a href="#CR69" rid="CR69" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_792533393">2015</a>).These studies contributed towards phytochemical composition of this genus and emphasized the significant role of non-targeted metabolomics in further component analysis.

Antioxidant

Aqueous and methanol extracts of the enzyme-treated S. herbacea possessed potential antioxidant effects as observed in vitro on rat liver microsomal lipid peroxidation (Jang et al. <a href="#CR26" rid="CR26" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674004">2007</a>). The butanol fraction S. herbacea methanol extract exerted scavenging activities attributable to its active principle isorhamnetin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside. The glucopyranoside intervened with inflammatory pathways via manipulation of cytokine profile (Kim et al. <a href="#CR34" rid="CR34" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673974">2009</a>). In a rat model, S. herbacea vinegar when orally administered (at 7 g/kg water) showed free radical scavenging and SOD-like activities. Furthermore, the vinegar-administered rats showed higher glycogen accumulation in liver and muscles, higher lactate and ATP metabolism, promoting enzyme activities such as muscle creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase, whereas serum fatigue biomarkers such as ammonia, lactate and inorganic acid were markedly decreased (Cho et al. <a href="#CR7" rid="CR7" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673994">2015</a>).

Antiproliferative

Polysaccharides from botanical sources exerting anticancer properties have been well-documented (Chang <a href="#CR6" rid="CR6" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673971">2002</a>; Patel and Goyal <a href="#CR57" rid="CR57" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673977">2012</a>). In this regard, many Salicornia polysaccharides have also shown promise, validated through in vitro and in vivo models. Crude as well as purified polysaccharides from S. herbacea (at 0.5–4 mg/ml) demonstrated anti-proliferation of human colon cancer HT-29 cells when incubated for 24–48 h (Ryu et al. <a href="#CR66" rid="CR66" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674022">2009</a>). The mechanism of the cancer cell death was attributed to cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase, followed by apoptosis. Expression of the p53 tumor suppressor gene and the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 (CDK inhibitor p21) were observed (Ryu et al. <a href="#CR66" rid="CR66" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674016">2009</a>). In another study S. herbacea -derived chlorogenic acid, 3-caffeoyl, 4-dicaffeoylquinic acid exerted control on metastasis of human fibrosarcoma HT-1080 cell line (Hwang et al. <a href="#CR22" rid="CR22" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674018">2010</a>). The invasion restraint was mediated through the inhibition of activator protein-1 AP-1 and signaling pathways involving protein kinase C (PKC) delta (repressing phosphorylation of ERK, p38 MAPK, and JNK) and three MAPKs, culminating in reduced activation of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 (Hwang et al. <a href="#CR22" rid="CR22" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674021">2010</a>). Another study found that pentadecyl ferulate from S. herbacea ethyl acetate extract possesses antioxidant effect and exerts anticancer response towards human hepatocellular liver carcinoma HepG2 and human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial A549 cells, along with phytol and γ-linolenic acid (Wang et al. <a href="#CR81" rid="CR81" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674040">2013</a>). Saponins, Salbige A and B, isolated from S. herbacea exerted antiproliferative activities towards A549 cells, while a pheophorbide (a chlorophyll catabolite) inhibited both A549 and HepG2 cancer cells (Zhao et al. <a href="#CR88" rid="CR88" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673973">2014</a>).

Lipid lowering

Hyperlipidemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality across the globe. S. herbacea ethanol (50 %) extract exerted lipid lowering in mice model when prescribed for 10 weeks, via suppression of lipogenesis related genes [sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1a), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GAPT)] (Park et al. <a href="#CR55" rid="CR55" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673989">2006</a>). In addition, flavonoids from this plant were observed to exert adipogenic inhibition in 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Kong and Seo <a href="#CR38" rid="CR38" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673965">2012</a>). The isorhamnetin compound reduced adipogenic differentiation by down-regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ), CCAAT/enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBPα), SREBP1, and the adipocyte-specific proteins. Involvement of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was also observed (Kong and Seo <a href="#CR38" rid="CR38" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674044">2012</a>). In addition, 3-caffeoyl, 4-dihydrocaffeoylquinic acid extracted from this species prevented lipid accumulation by blocking SREBP-1c and FAS through LKB1/SIRT1 and AMPK activation as studied in HepG2 cells (Pil Hwang et al. <a href="#CR60" rid="CR60" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674026">2013</a>). Another mice study on this plant revealed that it can decrease body weight gain by controlling serum leptin and manipulating lipid synthesis genes as SREBP-1c, PPARγ and FAS. Intake of high fat diet along with the plant powder at 50 g/ kg dose conferred significantly better parameters compared to only high fat diet or high fat diet plus NaCl group (Pichiah and Cha <a href="#CR59" rid="CR59" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674054">2015</a>).

Antibacterial

Methanol extract of S. herbacea showed antibacterial activities, mediated by interference with cytochrome P450 CYP1A2, CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 enzymes (Essaidi et al. <a href="#CR14" rid="CR14" class=" bibr popnode">2013</a>). Another study explored the possibility of developing antimicrobial nanoparticles from Salicornia. S. brachiata-based gold nanoparticles were analyzed through a set of standard tools, which revealed its poly-dispersed, crystalline nature and 22–35 nm size (Essaidi et al. <a href="#CR14" rid="CR14" class=" bibr popnode">2013</a>). The particles decimated tested bacteria, manifested in zone of clearance on inoculated plates. Further, the nanoparticles showed synergistic activity with fluoroquinolone antibiotic ofloxacin (Ayaz Ahmed et al. <a href="#CR3" rid="CR3" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674052">2014</a>). Based on these exciting results, follow-up studies ought to be pursued.

Antidiabetic

Diabetes has assumed epidemic proportions in current times, due to pollution, and processed, calorie-rich food consumption, among other causal factors (Olokoba et al. <a href="#CR53" rid="CR53" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674025">2012</a>). Existing panel of antidiabetic drugs provoke side effects (Haque et al. <a href="#CR20" rid="CR20" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673969">2011</a>; Stein et al. <a href="#CR76" rid="CR76" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674043">2013</a>). In this regard, safer options to control hyperglycemia are being searched. Consequently, the ameliorative effect of S. herbacea powder on induced-diabetic rats was studied. When administered alone or recommended with exercise (in the form of swimming), it showed higher expression of liver and muscle glucose transporters GLUT-4 and GLUT-2 (Lee et al. <a href="#CR41" rid="CR41" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673998">2015</a>). Higher glycogen concentration in liver and muscle also corroborated the finding, heralding possible usage of the halophyte as an antidote to control diabetes (Lee et al. <a href="#CR41" rid="CR41" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674008">2015</a>).

Hepatoprotective

Liver is a vital gland for proper functionality of the body (Jarrar et al. <a href="#CR27" rid="CR27" class=" bibr popnode">2001</a>). Most analgesics induce adverse effect on liver tissues and functions (Bessone <a href="#CR4" rid="CR4" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674014">2010</a>). To evaluate hepatoprotective effects of a Korean herbal drink, of which Salicornia was a constituent, this study was conducted. The multi-herb potion ‘taemyeongcheong’ was administered to acetaminophen-stressed mice. At 500 mg/kg dose, the drink conferred protective effects on mice liver. Drop in the level of oxidative enzymes as alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and elevation in the level of antioxidative enzymes as catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione was observed. Decline in expression of hepatic mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, COX-2, and iNOS genes were observed, which can be linked to the lower degree of lesions to liver tissue (Yi et al. <a href="#CR84" rid="CR84" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673981">2015</a>).

Immunomodulatory

Polysaccharides from this plant have shown evidence of eliciting immune response. In this context, some pertinent studies have been discussed below. In an in vitro study, S. herbacea polysaccharides induced nitric oxide (NO) production from mouse peritoneal macrophages and mouse leukaemic monocyte macrophage RAW 264.7, through the activation of nuclear factor-kappaB/Rel (NF-kappaB/Rel) (Lee et al. <a href="#CR40" rid="CR40" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674020">2006</a>). Consequently, the polysaccharide stimulating macrophages that express iNOS gene came forth (Lee et al. <a href="#CR40" rid="CR40" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673996">2006</a>). In another study on S. herbacea, its polysaccharide demonstrated effect on monocyte activation and differentiation into macrophage (Im et al. <a href="#CR23" rid="CR23" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673980">2006</a>). RAW 264.7 cells elaborated cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin (IL)-1 beta, and nitric oxide (NO) when incubated with the polysaccharide. Further differentiation into macrophage was determined from higher adherence development in the monocytes (Im et al. <a href="#CR23" rid="CR23" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674036">2006</a>). Enhanced collagen-adherence is known to improve phagocytosis (Newman and Tucci <a href="#CR51" rid="CR51" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674032">1990</a>). Further work by same group of researchers reaffirmed that the purified polysaccharide worked in sync with IFN-γ to induce immune effector molecules as TNF-α, IL-1 β, and NO to differentiate the monocytes into the macrophages (Im et al. <a href="#CR24" rid="CR24" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673995">2007</a>).

Osteoprotective

Bone health is crucial for they make the framework of body and enable proper muscle movement. Nutrient deficiency, genetic or geriatric conditions impose bone malfunctions. Osteoporosis is a key bone disorder, for which one causal agent has been identified as higher bone adipogenesis (differentiation of stem cells into mature adipocytes) (Pino et al. <a href="#CR61" rid="CR61" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674047">2012</a>). In this regard, S. herbacea extract was observed to inhibit adipogenesis via manipulation of PPARγ, CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP)α and SREBP1c. Resultantly, osteogenesis improved, as evidenced in MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts. Osteoblastogenesis markers as alkaline phosphatase (ALP), bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2, osteocalcin and collagen type I (collagen-I) lent support to bone formation induction by S. herbacea extract (Karadeniz et al. <a href="#CR32" rid="CR32" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674007">2014</a>).

Antiseptic food additive

Sepsis, caused by the compromised integrity of membrane barrier can be fatal (Li et al. <a href="#CR43" rid="CR43" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673960">2009</a>), so the discovery of the antiseptic effect of Salicornia is interesting, regarding which some relevant findings have been discussed here. High mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1), a nuclear protein elaborated by activated leucocytes, is released in excess when inflammatory tissue damage renders the membrane porous (Tang et al. <a href="#CR78" rid="CR78" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673999">2010</a>; Lotze and Tracey <a href="#CR46" rid="CR46" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673979">2005</a>; Passali et al. <a href="#CR56" rid="CR56" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674055">2012</a>). In this scenario, inhibitors of HMGB1 are suggested to be a potential treatment for sepsis. S. herbacea-derived caffeoylated quinic acids showed anti-HMGB1 activity which exerted protection towards vasculature (Tuan et al. <a href="#CR79" rid="CR79" class=" bibr popnode">2015a</a>). The purified flavanones and chromone derivatives from the plant suppressed the release of HMGB1 in mice models, barricading the animal intestine from septic shocks (Tuan et al. <a href="#CR80" rid="CR80" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673968">2015b</a>). Role of the phytochemicals in hyperpermeability modulation needs to be investigated further, to better utilize the halophyte in fight against septicemia. While the precise mechanism is yet to be discovered for Salicornia, other studies have attributed anti- HMGB1 activity to be due to activated cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (Goldstein et al. <a href="#CR18" rid="CR18" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674024">2007</a>).

Cultivation

Salicornia is mulled to be the right candidate for reclamation of barren lands, salt flats, and sea shores. In short, they can be deemed for seawater agriculture. It is suggested that as global warming threatens to submerge more landmass, and freshwater is depleting, a shift to saline crop might be a viable option (Katschnig et al. <a href="#CR33" rid="CR33" class=" bibr popnode">2013</a>). Few plants can tolerate excess salt and among them few are edible. In this context, Salicornia seems to be a right candidate for cultivation (Singh et al. <a href="#CR73" rid="CR73" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674053">2014</a>). Regarding cultivation, different degrees of success have been observed in different parts of the world. Some of the Salicornia species are being farmed at commercial scale, for biodiesel, animal feed, and salt and oil extraction, e.g. S. bigelovii (Cybulska et al. <a href="#CR9" rid="CR9" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603674050">2014</a>). This species produces oleaginous seeds which have been evaluated to be a promising feedstock for biodiesel production (Falasca et al. <a href="#CR15" rid="CR15" class=" bibr popnode">2014</a>). Introduction of Salicornia in arid lands of Saudi Arabia and Africa is being pondered and practiced (Fedoroff et al. <a href="#CR16" rid="CR16" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673972">2010</a>). Heavy metal removal is another possible usage of this plant. Controlled cultivation of various species procured from various habitats showed different results. S. bigelovii was grown in greenhouse conditions, which reflected that crop yield can vary depending on plants sourced from different habitats. Greenhouse milieu reduced biomass and fruit yield, though cultivation was successful (Bresdin et al. <a href="#CR5" rid="CR5" class=" bibr popnode">2016</a>). In addition, species-specific yield was observed, as seen with S. ramosissima, which produced more harvestable biomass than S. dolichostachya (Singh et al. <a href="#CR73" rid="CR73" class=" bibr popnode tag_hotlink tag_tooltip" id="__tag_603673976">2014</a>). Even if subsequent research dismisses Salicornia as unfit for human consumption, they might be purposed for other utilities, like biofuel harvest or livestock feeding.